Alkaline batteries are widely regarded as single-use power sources, yet the possibility of recharging them under specific conditions has intrigued scientists and engineers for decades. Although not originally designed for recharging, the electrochemical reactions within alkaline batteries can be partially reversed, allowing a portion of their capacity to be restored. This raises important questions about the feasibility, limitations, and potential applications of recharging non-rechargeable alkaline batteries.

This study seeks to address these questions by systematically exploring the recharging process. We begin by establishing the scientific basis for why recharging is possible, discussing the underlying electrochemical mechanisms and common misconceptions. This foundation provides a context for the subsequent experimental work, which investigates key factors such as capacity retention, internal resistance, the Peukert-Effect, and voltage stability over multiple charge-discharge cycles. By simulating real-world applications, the experiments assess the practical utility of recharged alkaline batteries in both low-power and high-drain scenarios. The findings from this research aim to clarify the trade-offs involved in recharging alkaline batteries, offering valuable insights for both consumers and researchers. By understanding the chemical and physical changes that occur during recharging, we hope to better define the circumstances under which recharged alkaline batteries can serve as a cost-effective and environmentally conscious alternative to traditional single-use batteries.

Understanding Alkaline Battery Chemistry

Alkaline batteries operate based on a chemical reaction between zinc and manganese dioxide, using an alkaline electrolyte, typically potassium hydroxide. Unlike rechargeable batteries such as NiMH or lithium-ion, the reaction in alkaline batteries is not inherently reversible. However, with careful control of the recharging process, some of the reaction products can be converted back to their original form, restoring partial capacity.


Chemical Processes in Alkaline Batteries

To understand why recharging alkaline batteries is challenging, we need to examine the chemical reactions involved during discharge and charging.

Discharge: Energy Release

During discharge, the following chemical reactions occur:

  • At the Anode (negative electrode):
    Zinc (Zn) reacts with hydroxide ions (OH⁻) from the electrolyte to form zinc oxide (ZnO) and release electrons:

Zn (s) + 2OH→ ZnO (s) + H2​O (l) + 2e

  • At the Cathode (positive electrode):
    Manganese dioxide (MnO₂) is reduced by accepting electrons and reacting with water to form manganese oxyhydroxide (MnOOH):

2MnO2 ​(s) + H2​O (l) + 2e→ 2MnOOH (s)

These reactions generate an electric current that powers your devices.


Recharging: Partial Reversal

During recharging, the goal is to reverse the chemical processes to regenerate the original reactants, but this is only partially effective due to side reactions and irreversibility in some steps.

  • At the Anode (negative electrode):
    Zinc oxide (ZnO) is reduced back to metallic zinc (Zn):

ZnO (s) + H2​O (l) + 2e→ Zn (s) + 2OH

  • At the Cathode (positive electrode):
    Manganese oxyhydroxide (MnOOH) is oxidized back to manganese dioxide (MnO₂):

2MnOOH (s) → 2MnO2​ (s) + H2​O (l) + 2e


Challenges in the Recharging Process

  1. Irreversibility: Some of the zinc and manganese dioxide undergo irreversible side reactions during discharge, such as forming insoluble compounds, which cannot be regenerated.
  2. Gas Production: During charging, water in the electrolyte can decompose into hydrogen (H₂) and oxygen (O₂), leading to gas buildup and leakage.
  3. Heat Generation: Resistance within the battery can cause heat buildup during recharging, accelerating unwanted side reactions and potentially damaging the battery.

Technical Aspects of Recharging Alkaline Batteries

Recharging alkaline batteries involves applying a controlled, low-current electrical charge. The key is to minimize heat and gas production, as these can lead to leakage or rupture. While most commercial alkaline battery chargers claim to utilize a pulsed current to reduce overheating and extend battery life, this feature is largely marketing-driven. Pulsed charging offers no significant advantage over steady current charging in the context of alkaline batteries, as their chemistry is not inherently responsive to pulsed currents. A standard regulated power supply with proper voltage and current settings is sufficient for safe and effective recharging.

  • Current and Voltage: Recharging typically requires a current of less than 300 mA per battery and a voltage slightly higher than the nominal voltage (1.5 V) to reverse the chemical reaction.
  • Temperature Management: Excess heat accelerates side reactions, reducing the battery’s lifespan and safety.
  • Partial Recharging: Alkaline batteries can only regain 60-80% of their original capacity, and each recharge cycle slightly degrades their overall performance.

Recharging Alkaline Batteries: A Step-by-Step Guide

Recharging alkaline batteries requires precision and care to ensure safety and prevent damage to the battery. Follow these steps for controlled recharging:

Materials Needed

  1. A regulated power supply capable of low current output.
  2. Heat-resistant surface for charging setup.
  3. A container to place batteries in case of leakage.

Step 1: Inspect the Batteries

  • Visual Inspection: Check for corrosion, leaks, or physical damage. Damaged batteries must not be recharged.
  • Voltage Test: Use a multimeter to measure the remaining voltage. Alkaline batteries below 1.0 V are likely too depleted for efficient recharging. More on this in the results of the experimental part.

Step 2: Prepare the Charging Circuit

  • Voltage Setting: Set the output voltage to 1.65 V per battery. This is slightly above the nominal voltage (1.5 V) to reverse the chemical reaction without overcharging.
  • Current Limiting: Limit the current to 50 (AAA) – 100 mA (AA) per battery for the first charging cycle. This prevents excessive heat buildup and minimizes gas production.

Step 3: Connect the Batteries

  • Place the batteries in the charging slots of the charger or connect them to the power supply terminals with proper polarity (positive to positive, negative to negative).
  • Ensure the connections are secure and the batteries are placed on a heat-resistant surface to prevent damage in case of leakage.

Step 4: Begin Charging

  1. Start with a Low Current: Begin with 50 mA for AAA batteries and 100 mA for AA batteries for the first 4 hours to minimize initial stress on the battery.
  2. Monitor Voltage and Temperature:
    • Measure the battery voltage periodically. If the voltage exceeds 1.65 V or the battery feels warm to the touch, stop charging immediately.
    • A slight increase in temperature (<30 °C) is normal, but overheating indicates potential hazards.

Step 5: Adjust Current and Charge Duration

  • After 4-6 hours: The charging voltage will have reached a plateau at approx. 1.55 V and will not increase any further without a higher charging current. Gradually increase the current to 125 mA (AAA) or 300 mA (AA), if the battery remains stable.
    • The maximum end-of-charge voltage that can be reached decreases with each charging cycle. Due to the degradation of the battery cell, the voltage only rises to 1.45 V in the 2nd charging cycle with a constant charging current of 100 mA and can only be raised to 1.55 V with an increased final charging current of 300 mA. In the third charging cycle, the voltage stagnates at 1.4 V and can only be raised to 1.45 V with the increased charging current of 300 mA. As expected, this reduces the residual capacity considerably.
  • Critical Phase: The higher current is necessary to reach the end charging voltage of 1.65 V. In this phase, greater heating is to be expected. In my tests, the cells did not get warmer than 30 °C. Increasing the output current above 300 mA at the end of the charge is no longer useful, as the internal resistance of the degraded cell converts the additional power primarily into waste heat.
  • Monitor Charging Time: Alkaline batteries typically take up to 6-8 hours to recharge depending on their initial charge level.

Warnings and Tips

  1. Do Not Overcharge: Excessive charging can lead to gas buildup, leakage, or even explosions.
  2. Charge in a Safe Area: Always recharge in a well-ventilated space away from flammable materials.
  3. Limit Recharge Cycles: Most alkaline batteries can only be recharged 2-3 times before they lose effectiveness.

Limitations and Risks

While recharging alkaline batteries may seem economical and environmentally friendly, it comes with significant drawbacks:

  1. Leakage Risk: Gas buildup during charging can rupture the seal, causing electrolyte leakage.
  2. Limited Lifespan: Each battery can only endure a few recharge cycles before losing capacity entirely.
  3. Compatibility Issues: Not all alkaline batteries respond well to recharging. High-quality brands often perform better than cheaper alternatives.
  4. Safety Concerns: Improper charging, such as using excessive current or attempting to recharge damaged batteries, can result in explosions or fire hazards.
  5. Economical Value: The charging process takes several hours. The economic value must be critically examined.

Assessing Performance and Degradation of Recharged Alkaline Batteries: Experimental Analysis

The purpose of this experiment was to systematically investigate the performance and degradation of non-rechargeable alkaline batteries when subjected to repeated charge-discharge cycles. By analyzing capacity retention, internal resistance, and voltage profiles under varying conditions, the study aimed to determine the practical limitations and potential applications of recharged alkaline batteries. The experimental design was tailored to simulate both low-power and high-drain scenarios, reflecting real-world usage patterns. Additionally, the impact of deep discharge on battery longevity was assessed to provide insights into its chemical effects and practical implications.

Methods

To investigate the effects of repeated charge-discharge cycles and varying discharge conditions on alkaline batteries, two experimental setups were employed:

  1. Charge-Discharge Cycles:
    • Battery Type: Fresh AA alkaline batteries (three in total).
    • Standard Discharge: Batteries were discharged to a cutoff voltage of 1.0 V at a constant current of 100 mA.
    • Deep Discharge: Batteries were discharged to a cutoff voltage of 0.5V under the same current conditions.
    • Charging Protocol: Batteries were recharged using a regulated power supply with a constant current and a voltage limit of 1.65 V per battery. The process was repeated for four cycles.
      • 1st cycle: constant current 100 mA to 1.55 V, then with 300 mA to 1.65 V
      • 2nd cycle: constant current 100 mA to 1.5 V, then with 300 mA to 1.55 V
      • 3rd cycle: constant current 100 mA to 1.4 V, then with 300 mA to 1.5 V
  2. Discharge Current Variation:
    • Low Current: Batteries were discharged at 100 mA to simulate low-power applications (e.g., remote controls, LED lights).
    • High Current: Batteries were discharged at 500 mA to replicate high-power applications (e.g., motorized toys).
    • Voltage-time data was recorded for four charge-discharge cycles to examine the impact of current intensity on battery performance.

Data Collection

  • Capacity Measurement: The capacity of the batteries was calculated from the discharge time and current (mAh) for each cycle.
  • Voltage Monitoring: Voltage and current were measured using an electronic load with a 4-wire measurement setup to capture accurate voltage-time profiles during discharge.
  • Environmental Conditions: Experiments were conducted at room temperature (22°C) to minimize external influences.

Results

To analyze how repeated charging and discharging impacts the capacity, time and internal resistance of alkaline batteries, measurements were performed over five cycles under standard (1.0 V cutoff) and deep (0.5 V cutoff) discharge conditions. Each measurement was conducted three times (N=3), and the results were averaged. The standard error of the mean (SEM) was calculated to quantify variability.

The Peukert Effect in Alkaline Batteries: Understanding Capacity Loss at High Discharge Currents

To investigate the performance of alkaline batteries at different discharge currents, a series of discharge tests were performed with a cutoff voltage of 1.0 V. The extracted capacity and discharge duration were recorded for different current levels. At 100 mA, the battery delivered nearly its full nominal capacity of 2181 mAh, lasting for approximately 21 hours and 50 minutes. As the discharge current increased to 250 mA, the measured capacity dropped to 1600 mAh, reducing the discharge time to about 7 hours and 49 minutes. At 500 mA, the battery’s capacity further declined to 1246 mAh, corresponding to a runtime of 2 hours and 34 minutes. At the highest tested discharge rate of 1000 mA, the effective capacity plummeted to only 649 mAh, with a discharge duration of just 38 minutes.

The Peukert exponent was calculated for each of these discharge scenarios using 100 mA as the reference current and 2181 mAh as the nominal capacity. For 250 mA, the Peukert exponent was found to be 0.338, for 500 mA it was 0.348, and for 1000 mA, it increased to 0.526. The average Peukert exponent across all tested currents was approximately 0.40, indicating a substantial non-linearity in capacity degradation as the discharge rate increased.

Fig. 3: The discharge current plotted against the capacity to be discharged (left y-axis) and against the discharge time (right y-axis) at a cut-off voltage of 1.0 V.

Capacity Retention and Internal Resistance Over Charge-Discharge Cycles

The internal resistance of a battery is a key parameter influencing its performance, efficiency, and longevity. Over multiple charge-discharge cycles, internal resistance tends to increase due to physical and chemical degradation processes within the battery. The experimental measurements showed a progressive rise in internal resistance across all test conditions. At 100 mA with a 1V cutoff, the initial resistance of 239.5 mΩ increased steadily over the cycles, reaching 339.0 mΩ by the fifth cycle. A similar pattern was observed for 500 mA with a 1V cutoff, where resistance rose from 232.3 mΩ in the first cycle to 262.7 mΩ by the fifth cycle. When the cutoff voltage was lowered to 0.5V at 500 mA, internal resistance followed the same increasing trend, starting at 241.0 mΩ in cycle 1 and reaching 292.7 mΩ by cycle 5.

Fig. 4: The discharge-charge cycle is plotted against the internal resistance of the battery cell before discharging. Measured at a discharge current of 100 and 500 mA and a cut-off voltage of 1.0 V and 0.5 V. The internal resistance increases from cycle to cycle.

Voltage-Time Profiles for Low and High Current Discharge

To evaluate the effect of repeated charge-discharge cycles on alkaline batteries, discharge time measurements were recorded for different current and cutoff voltage conditions over five cycles. At 100 mA with a 1 V cutoff, the initial discharge time was 1310 minutes, but it decreased drastically to 423 minutes in the second cycle and continued to drop to 122 minutes by the fifth cycle. A similar trend was observed at 500 mA with a 1 V cutoff, where the initial discharge time was 154 minutes, reducing to 80 minutes in cycle 2, and further declining to 25 minutes by cycle 5.

When comparing the 1V cutoff with a 0.5 V cutoff at 500 mA, the discharge times were consistently higher for the lower cutoff voltage. The first cycle lasted 223 minutes at 0.5V compared to 154 minutes at 1 V, and this difference persisted across all cycles. By the fifth cycle, the discharge time at 0.5V was still 40 minutes, whereas it had already dropped to 25 minutes at 1 V.

Overall, the results indicate a rapid decline in usable capacity across repeated cycles, with lower discharge currents revealing a stronger effect. The extended discharge duration with a 0.5 V cutoff suggests that deeper discharge allows for slightly increased capacity utilization but does not prevent the long-term degradation of the battery. negatively affect battery reliability.

Fig. 5: The discharge-charge cycle is plotted against the discharge time . Measured at a discharge current of 100 and 500 mA and a cut-off voltage of 1.0 V and 0.5 V.

To further analyze the impact of repeated charge-discharge cycles, the extracted capacity at each cycle was measured. At 100 mA with a 1V cutoff, the initial extracted capacity was 2181 mAh, but it decreased significantly to 710 mAh in the second cycle and continued declining to 205 mAh by the fifth cycle. A similar pattern was observed at 500 mA with a 1V cutoff, where the capacity started at 1247 mAh, dropped to 697 mAh in cycle 2, and further declined to 301 mAh by cycle 5.

When comparing the 1V cutoff with a 0.5V cutoff at 500 mA, the extracted capacity was consistently higher for the lower cutoff voltage. The first cycle yielded 1670 mAh at 0.5V compared to 1247 mAh at 1V, and this difference persisted throughout the test. By the fifth cycle, the extracted capacity at 0.5V was still 324 mAh, whereas it had already dropped to 301 mAh at 1V.

Fig. 6: The discharge-charge cycle is plotted against the capacity of the battery cell . Measured at a discharge current of 100 and 500 mA and a cut-off voltage of 1.0 V and 0.5 V.

Discussion

The observed decline in capacity at higher discharge currents can be explained by the Peukert Effect, which quantifies the reduction of usable battery capacity as current draw increases. The Peukert equation describes this relationship, where the effective capacity decreases as a function of the discharge current raised to the power of the Peukert exponent. In the case of these alkaline batteries, the exponent of approximately 0.40 signifies a significant sensitivity to higher discharge rates.

Capacity loss at higher discharge currents

The increasing Peukert exponent at higher currents indicates that additional inefficiencies, such as increased internal resistance and electrochemical reaction limitations, become dominant. At low currents (250 mA and 500 mA), the exponent remained relatively stable around 0.34, suggesting moderate efficiency loss. However, at 1000 mA, the exponent rose sharply to 0.526, demonstrating that extreme discharge rates drastically reduce efficiency. This can be attributed to multiple factors, including increased voltage drop due to internal resistance, diffusion limitations preventing ion transport, and self-heating, which may accelerate unwanted side reactions such as gas formation within the cell.

The original equation, formulated by Wilhelm Peukert in 1897 for lead-acid batteries, is given as:

C_eff=C_nom*(I_reff/I)^k

where:

  • Ceff is the effective capacity at discharge current I,
  • Cnom is the nominal capacity at a reference current Iref,
  • k is the Peukert exponent, which characterizes how strongly capacity declines with increasing discharge current.

To determine the Peukert exponent , the equation is rearranged as follows:

k=(log(C_eff/C_nom))/(log(I_ref/I))

For ideal batteries, where capacity does not change with discharge current, would be 0. However, real batteries exhibit non-ideal behavior, leading to values of greater than 0. In general:

  • Lithium-ion batteries have k = 0.05 – 0.15, showing minimal dependence on discharge current.
  • Lead-acid batteries exhibit k = 1.1 – 1.5, indicating a strong reduction in effective capacity at high currents.
  • Alkaline batteries, as observed in this study, typically show intermediate behavior with k = 0.3 – 0.5, meaning they perform well at low currents but degrade significantly under high-load conditions.

Decrease of discharge time and capacity after multiple discharge-charge cycles

The observed decline in both discharge time and extracted capacity across multiple cycles confirms that alkaline batteries suffer from substantial degradation when subjected to repeated charge-discharge cycles. This capacity loss is particularly severe at lower discharge currents, as seen in the 100 mA case, where the initial extracted capacity of 2181 mAh dropped to 710 mAh in the second cycle and further declined to 205 mAh by the fifth cycle. This sharp reduction suggests that the battery undergoes significant chemical degradation even at low power draws, possibly due to irreversible side reactions such as the passivation of the zinc anode and changes in the manganese dioxide cathode structure.

At higher discharge currents (500 mA), the reduction in capacity follows a similar trend, but with slightly less relative degradation. The extracted capacity starts at 1247 mAh, decreasing to 697 mAh by cycle 2 and ultimately 301 mAh by cycle 5. The smaller percentage drop compared to 100 mA suggests that while degradation still occurs, the effects of prolonged low-power usage exacerbate the loss of available active material. This might be due to the different electrochemical mechanisms dominant at lower currents, where long-duration exposure promotes unwanted side reactions.

A key observation is the effect of cutoff voltage on capacity retention. The 500 mA, 0.5V cutoff trials resulted in consistently higher extracted capacities than the 1V cutoff tests, with an initial capacity of 1670 mAh, dropping to 1074 mAh by cycle 2 and 324 mAh by cycle 5. Allowing a deeper discharge (down to 0.5V) extracts more energy per cycle, but it does not significantly mitigate long-term degradation. This suggests that while extending the voltage range increases usable energy temporarily, the cumulative effects of capacity loss remain unchanged, likely due to underlying chemical degradation mechanisms that are independent of discharge depth.

The declining discharge times follow a nearly identical pattern to the extracted capacity values, reinforcing the observation that repeated cycling causes internal resistance to increase and the available charge storage to decrease. The increasing internal resistance leads to greater voltage drops under load, which in turn accelerates the battery’s effective depletion. Additionally, the observed higher standard error values in later cycles suggest increased variability in battery performance as degradation progresses, indicating that individual cells degrade at slightly different rates due to manufacturing tolerances and differences in internal chemistry.

From a practical perspective, these findings highlight that alkaline batteries are particularly unsuited for repeated deep-discharge and recharge cycles. While they may still function in low-drain applications such as clocks or remote controls, their performance drops significantly when subjected to multiple use cycles. High-drain applications such as motorized toys or portable electronics further exacerbate this effect, leading to rapid unusability.

From a practical perspective, these findings highlight that alkaline batteries are best suited for low-power applications where energy demands remain modest, such as remote controls, clocks, and LED lights. In high-drain applications, such as motorized toys, flashlights, and portable fans, the rapid drop in effective capacity significantly limits their usability. The data suggests that alkaline batteries are inherently inefficient for high-current applications due to their strong Peukert dependence, making alternative chemistries like lithium-ion or nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) more suitable for these scenarios.

Increase of internal resistance

This increase in internal resistance is attributed to several factors. One major cause is electrode degradation, particularly at the zinc anode, where repeated charge and discharge cycles lead to uneven deposition and depletion of active material. Over time, these changes cause higher resistance to charge flow. Another contributing factor is electrolyte depletion, where repeated cycling results in localized depletion of potassium hydroxide (KOH), reducing ion mobility and increasing resistance. Additionally, the formation of insulating byproducts such as zinc hydroxide (Zn(OH)2) and zinc oxide (ZnO) further impedes efficient electron transport. These byproducts accumulate on the anode, creating a resistive barrier between the active material and the electrolyte. Another significant contributor is gas evolution and structural degradation, particularly at high discharge currents, where hydrogen gas formation leads to microvoids and disrupts charge conduction pathways.

A notable difference between the 1 V and 0.5 V cutoff conditions is the slightly higher resistance values at deeper discharge levels (0.5 V). While allowing the battery to discharge further increases the extracted capacity per cycle, it also accelerates chemical degradation, leading to a faster increase in internal resistance. This suggests that while deep discharge can temporarily improve energy utilization, it may contribute to a shorter overall cycle life by promoting more aggressive electrochemical degradation.

The experiments reveal key insights into the chemical and practical limitations of recharged alkaline batteries. Chemically, repeated recharging causes degradation processes primarily at the zinc anode and manganese dioxide cathode, which are responsible for the electrochemical reactions in alkaline batteries. During discharge, zinc oxidizes at the anode:

Zn (s)+2OH→ZnO (s)+H2​O (l)+2e

At the cathode, manganese dioxide undergoes reduction:

2MnO2​(s)+H2​O (l)+2e→2MnOOH (s)

During recharging, these reactions are partially reversed. Zinc oxide (ZnO) is reduced back to metallic zinc (Zn):

ZnO (s)+H2​O (l)+2e→ Zn (s)+2OH

Manganese oxyhydroxide (MnOOH) is oxidized back to manganese dioxide (MnO₂):

2MnOOH (s) → 2MnO2​(s)+H2​O (l)+2e

However, inefficiencies in the process lead to side reactions such as the evolution of hydrogen gas at the anode:

2H2​O (l)+2e→ H2 ​(g)+2OH

Additionally, zinc hydroxide (Zn(OH)2) can form and precipitate, which permanently removes active zinc from the electrochemical system:

ZnO (s) + H2​O (l) → Zn(OH)2 ​(s)

Deep discharge exacerbates these problems by depleting the active materials more extensively, causing structural damage to the zinc anode and further reducing its ability to participate in electrochemical reactions. Similarly, at the cathode, excessive reduction of manganese dioxide can result in irreversible phase transformations, diminishing its reactivity in subsequent cycles.

These chemical changes explain the significant decline in capacity, voltage stability, and the observed increase in internal resistance during deep discharge and recharging. The rising internal resistance reflects the accumulation of inactive byproducts and damage to the electrodes, which impede the efficient flow of current. In practical terms, these findings highlight that while recharged alkaline batteries retain some utility in low-power applications, their diminished capacity and reliability make them unsuitable for high-drain devices or critical tasks. The evolution of hydrogen gas and the formation of inactive byproducts also pose safety risks, particularly in poorly ventilated environments, emphasizing the need for careful handling and application.

In practical terms, the results demonstrate that recharged alkaline batteries are best suited for low-power applications where energy demands are modest, such as remote controls or LED devices. High-drain applications, like motorized toys or portable fans, rapidly deplete their limited capacity and exacerbate performance instability, rendering them ineffective. Additionally, the increasing variability observed in voltage profiles and capacity across cycles highlights their unreliability for critical tasks.

Overall, while recharged alkaline batteries offer some utility as a cost-effective and environmentally friendly option for specific use cases, their performance trade-offs necessitate careful consideration of application type to ensure optimal functionality and lifespan.

Practical Applications

Despite the limitations, recharging alkaline batteries can be useful in low-drain devices such as remote controls or clocks, where full capacity is not critical. It is not recommended for high-drain applications or critical devices like smoke detectors.


Environment and Sustainability

Recharging alkaline batteries can reduce waste and extend their lifespan, but rechargeable battery technologies, such as NiMH or lithium-ion, remain more sustainable long-term solutions. Transitioning to dedicated rechargeable batteries minimizes the environmental impact and offers greater performance reliability.


Conclusion

Recharging alkaline batteries is a fascinating intersection of chemistry and engineering, offering insights into the reversibility of electrochemical reactions. While it is possible and occasionally practical, it is not without risks and limitations. For those interested in energy efficiency, the adoption of dedicated rechargeable batteries is a safer and more sustainable path forward.